INTELLECTUAL GIFTEDNESS

Intellectual giftedness is an intellectual ability significantly higher than average.

Gifted children often develop asynchronously; their minds are often ahead of their physical growth, and specific cognitive and emotional functions are often developed differently (or to differing extents) at different stages of development. One frequently cited example of asynchronicity in early cognitive development is Albert Einstein, who did not speak until the age of two, but whose later fluency and accomplishments belied this initial delay. In regards to this fact, psychologist Steven Pinker theorized that, rather than viewing Einstein's (and other famously gifted late-talking individuals) adult accomplishments as existing distinct from, or in spite of, his early language deficits, and rather than viewing Einstein's lingual delay itself as a "disorder", it may be that Einstein's genius and his delay in speaking were developmentally intrinsic to one another.

Developmental theory

It has been said that gifted children may advance more quickly through stages established by post-Freudian developmentalists such as Jean Piaget. Gifted individuals also experience the world differently, resulting in certain social and emotional issues. The work of Kazimierz Dabrowski suggests that gifted children have greater psychomotor, sensual, imaginative, intellectual, and emotional "overexcitabilities".

Francoy Cagne's (2000) Differential Model of Giftedness and Talent (DMGT) is a developmental theory that distinguishes giftedness from talent, offering explanation on how outstanding natural abilities (gifts) develop into specific expert skills (talents).According to DMGT theory, "one cannot become talented without first being gifted, or almost so" (Cagne,2000).There are six components that can interact in countless and unique ways that fosters the process of moving from having natural abilities (giftedness) to systematically developed skills (Cagne,2000). These components consist of the gift(G)itself, chance(C), environmental cataylist(EC), intrapersonal catalyst(IC),learning/practice(LP) and the outcome of talent(T)(Cagne,2000). It is important to know that (C),(IC), and (EC) can facilitate but, can also hinder the learning and training of becoming talented. The learning/practice is the moderator. It is through the interactions, both environmental and intrapersonal that influence the process of learning and practice along with/without chance that natural abilities are transformed into talents.

Giftedness from a multiple intelligences perspective

Multiple intelligences has been a focus of interest for decades. During the last decade, it has been associated to giftedness or overachievement of some developmental areas (Colangelo, 2003). Multiple intelligences has been described as an attitude towards learning, instead of techniques or strategies (Cason, 2001). There are eight Intelligences, or different areas in which people assimilate or learn about the world around them: Interpersonal,intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, naturalistic, and spatial-visual. If the Theory of Multiple Intelligences is applied to educational curriculum, by providing lesson plans, themes, and programs in a way that all students are encouraged to develop their stronger area, and at the same time educators provide opportunities to enhance the learning process in the less strong areas, academic success may be attainable for all children in our school system.
Gardner proposed in Frames of Mind (Gardner 1983/1994) that intellectual giftedness may present in areas other than the typical intellectual realm. The concept of multiple intelligences (MI) makes the field aware of additional potential strengths and proposes a variety of curricular methods.

Gardner suggest MI in the following areas: Linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical, spatial, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic and existential.
Identification of gifted students with MI is a challenge since there is no simple test to give to determine giftedness of MI. Assessing by observation is potentially most accurate, but potentially highly subjective. MI theory can be applied to not only gifted students, but it can be a lens through which all students can be assessed. This more global perspective may lead to more child-centered instruction and meet the needs of a greater number of children(Colangelo, 2003).

Identifying giftedness

The formal identification of giftedness first emerged as an important issue for schools, as the instruction of gifted students often presents special challenges. During the 20th century, gifted children were often classified via IQ tests, however, recent developments in theories of intelligence have raised serious questions regarding the appropriate uses and limits of such testing. Many schools in North America and Europe have attempted to identify students who are not challenged by standard school curricula and offer additional or specialized education for them hoping of nurturing their talents.
Because of the key role that gifted education plays in the identification of gifted people (children or adults), it is worthwhile to examine how that discipline uses the term "gifted".

Characteristics of giftedness

Generally, gifted individuals learn more quickly, deeply, and broadly than their peers. Gifted children may learn to read early and operate at the same level as normal children who are significantly older. The gifted tend to demonstrate high reasoning ability, creativity, curiosity, a large vocabulary, and an excellent memory. They often can master concepts with few repetitions. They may also be physically and emotionally sensitive, perfectionistic, and may frequently question authority. Some have trouble relating to or communicating with their peers because of disparities in vocabulary size (especially in the early years), personality, interests and motivation. As children, they may prefer the company of older children or adults.
Giftedness is frequently not evenly distributed throughout all intellectual spheres: an individual may excel in solving logic problems and yet be a poor speller; another gifted individual may be able to read and write at a far above average level and yet have trouble with mathematics. It is possible there are different types of giftedness with their own unique features, just as there are different types of developmental delay.
Giftedness may become noticeable in individuals at different points of development. While early development (i.e. speaking or reading at a very young age) usually comes with giftedness, it is not a determinant of giftedness. The preschool years are when most gifted children begin to show the distinctive characteristics mentioned above. As the child becomes older, too-easy classes and emotional issues may slow or obstruct the rate of intellectual development.
Some gifted individuals experience heightened sensory awareness and may seem overly sensitive to sight, sound, smell and touch. For example, they may be extremely uncomfortable when they have a wrinkle in their sock, or unable to concentrate because of the sound of a clock ticking on the other side of the room. Hypersensitivity to external stimuli can be said to resemble a proneness to "sensory overload", which can cause persons to avoid chaotic and crowded environments. Others, however, are able to tune out any unwanted distractions as they focus on a task or on their own thoughts, and seem to seek and thrive on being in the midst of lots of activity and stimulation. In many cases, awareness may fluctuate between conditions of hyperstimulation and of withdrawal. These conditions may appear to be similar to symptoms of hyperactivity, bipolar disorder, ADHD, autism-spectrum conditions, and other psychological disorders, but are often explained by gifted education professionals by reference to Kazimierz Dabrowski's theory of Positive Disintegration. Some researchers focused on the study of overexcitabilities. Overexcitabilities refer to ways children or individuals understand and experience the world around them (Gross 2008). The more channels are open to receive the information or stimulus, the more intense or strong the experience is. According to Gross (2008), an individual response to a stimulus is determined by his/her dominant overexcitability. Overexcitabilities are expressed in five dimensions: psychomotor, sensual, intellectual, imaginational, and emotional. These dominant channels of acquiring information differ by quantity in some individuals. Gross, C., Rinn, A., & Jamieson, K. (2008). Gifted Adolescents’ Overexcitabilities and Self-Concepts. Journal of Gifted Education. 29, 4.

Mouse Pointers

Test your eye skills

Can u find the B?

RRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR
RRRRRRRRRRRBRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR
RRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR
RRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR
RRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR
RRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR

Once youve found the b...

Find The Mistake

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWUXYZ

Once Youve Found The Mistake...

Find the 1

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1IIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Once you found the 1...

Find the 6

9999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999
9999699999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999
9999999999999999999999999999999999



once youve found the 6...

Find the N (it's hard!! - not really)

MMMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMNMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMMM
MMMMMMMMMMMMM


once you've found the N...

Find the Q...


OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOQOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

For those people who dont have everything they want...

be grateful that you don't have everything you want.


That means, you have the oppurtunity to be happier tomorrow than you are today!!



Everything happens for a reason, people usually say but what they didnt see was that its up to us, people, to know the reason!

reasons reasons... what's your reason for living?

Ang Pasko ng Isang Estudyante

Nagkakagulo na sa labas! Mga yabag ng mga paang nagmamadali sa paghakabang. "Yes! nakakatatlo araw na ako!" "Dalian mo at papasok pa tayo!" "Bili tayong putobumbong at bibingka". Iba't ibang usapan ang maririnig. Paalam ng mga magkakaibigan. Angal ng mga batang akay akay ng ina na inaantok pa. Habilinang walang katapusan. At kadalasan sa simbang tabi, este, simbang gabi ay may bonus pa! Makakadinig ka ng mga matatalinghaga at mabubulaklak na salita mula sa isang lalaking naniningalang pugad. At matatawa ka na lang sa iyong sarili dahil alam mong pambobola lang iyon.

Ngunit ibang pangungusap ang hinihintay kong marinig. Ng magaalasais na ng umaga, biglang nagwika ang isang lalaking puting puti na may suot na kulay lilang balabal ang nagwika, "Humayo kayo ng mapayapa". Ayun! tapos na ang misa! Ngunit para sa akin, ang alas-sais ng umaga ay may ibang kahulugan maliban sa tapos na ang ikatlong araw ng simbang gabi. Mas higit pa don. Para sa akin, nangangahulugan ito na magkikita na naman kami ng taong napakahalaga. May usapang nga kaming magkikita ngayon. Siyempre, sa dati pa ding tagpuan kung saan kami nagkakilala. Hayy... sabik na sabik na akong makita sya. Ilang ORAS ko na din kasi syang di nakikita at nakakausap.

Ang taong tinutukoy ko? Ay ang prof ko sa Psych. (akala nyo kung sino no?) Kaya ng matapos ang misa at ang pagdadasal ko ng mataimtim, dali dali akong lumabas ng simbahan at nagabang ng jeep. Bigla kong naisip na Dec. 18 na pala, ikatlong araw ng simbang gabi at nakakatatlo na rin ako! Sana makumpleto ko ito. Sumagi sa isip ko na kahit simbang gabi na ay may pasok pa din maramihan sa mga estudyante.

Sumakay na ako ng jeep at ng LRT papasok. Naglakad sa kahabaan ng Taft Ave,. Dinaan ang ADU at Sta. Isabel kasabay ang mga estudyanteng hikahos sa pagmamadali. Pag pasok ng PNU, nituldukan ang bag ko gamit ang drumstick ng isang sikyo upang masabing nagchecheck sya ng bag ng mga pumapasok. Diretso na sa silid kung saan kami magkikita. Wala ng panahon upang tignan ang sarili sa salamin sa CR.

Nakaugalian ko na noong high school na magsimbang gabi bago pumasok sa paaralan, nangangahulugan na kahit noon pa man ay may pasok kahit simbang gabi na! Iba kasi ang pakiramdam ko kapag isa isa kong nakukumpleto ang nobena. Para bang kapag nakukumpleto ko ito, pwede kong pagaanin ang aking mga problema at maibsan ng kahit konti ang mga bagay na nagpapabigat sa dibdib ko. Para akong pumapasok sa isang mundo walang pipigil sa akin kapag ninais kong maging masaya dahil sa aking mga suliranin. Ramdam na ramdam ko ang Pasko sa pagmamahal ng Diyos at sa pagmamahal ng mga taong nasa paligid ko!

Ooooppsss! Si sir papasok na! kailangang mauna ako! Dali dali akong umakyat ng third floor at pawis na pawis na pumasok sa silid. Sakto! hindi ako nahuli sa klase! YES! ang sabi ko sa sarili ko. Sa pagpasok ni Sir, agad itong kumuha ng chalk at walang dala kahit ano kundi chalk lang talaga. Nakakadama ako ng pananabik sa kung ano ang isusulat nya. Dumaan kasi ang prelims at nararamdaman kong may bago na namang lesson... marunong naman ako magaral kahit papano.
"Your requirements to be passed on January 5........." ng makita ko ang mga katagang ito na sinusulat ng prof ko... unti unting lumipad ang diwa ko. "Pano na lang ako sa bakasyon?" "Requirements na naman?" "Ok lang yan basta sana madali lang".... "Mr. Mellor!" "Mr. Mellor!" naku patay! tinatawag na pala ako ng prof ko!

Hindi kaagad ako nakasagot. Ang buong akala ko tuloy ay may isang masamang tao na tumatawag sakin. Hindi pala! Nais lang pala nyang tanungin kung may gumugulo sa isip ko! Nais nyang tumulong. Bakas sa mukha ng lahat ng kaklase ko ang pagkadismaya dahil may requirements pa... hays...


Lumipas ang siyam na araw ng simbang gabi. Masaya ako at nakumpleto ko ito. Kailangan daw magwish. Wish ko ay sana next year makumpleto ko ulit ang simbang gabi at mas maging produktibo akong magaaral. Dec 24 na! Ang noche buena! Kainan! Mga tugtuging pamasko at mga batang tumatakbo! May pananabik sa lahat na salubungin ang pagdating ng ating Tagapagligtas.
ring ring! "Hello! Goodevening!" ang wika ko!
"Oi MC! Merry Christmas! tapos ka na ba sa requirements?"
"Merry Christmas din! Wag na nating pagusapan ang requirements muna! alam na iyon!" sabay kaming nagtawanan dahil alam naming pareho kami ng katayuan pagdating sa paggawa ng mga requirements.
Isang malamig na boses ang aking naririnig... nagbabago ang simoy ng hangin...

Masaya ang buong paligid! "Merry Christmas!!"
alas-dose na pala at pasko na. Salamat sa Diyos!

a short message to make your day at least worry free!

10 years from now...
it wont matter how you ded in your exams or
how good you were in school.

no one will care how many pairs of shoes you had.

it wont matter if you missed a class or what award you got on your graduation day.

your higest score in quiz wont be traced.

it wont matter if your uniform was always messy or if all your projects weren't the best.

but...


if you made life a lil' better for any other person, thats what will be remembered and

that makes life worth living!!

be strong fellahs! :) whew!

A Cute Conversation

boy: i LIKE you!

girl: i DONT!

boy: i CARE for you!

girl: i DONT!

boy: i LOVE you!

girl: i DONT!

boy: i am not kidding!

girl: i AM!!


cute*

Love according to Bob Ong

Love, according to Bob Ong.

1. "Kung hindi mo mahal ang isang tao, wag ka nang magpakita ng motibo para mahalin ka nya.."

2. "Huwag mong bitawan ang bagay na hindi mo kayang makitang hawak ng iba."

3. "Huwag mong hawakan kung alam mong bibitawan mo lang."

4. "Huwag na huwag ka hahawak kapag alam mong may hawak ka na."

5. "Parang elevator lang yan eh, bakit mo pagsisiksikan ung sarili mo kung walang pwesto para sayo. Eh meron naman hagdan, ayaw mo lang pansinin."

6. "Kung maghihintay ka nang lalandi sayo, walang mangyayari sa buhay mo.. Dapat lumandi ka din."

7. "Pag may mahal ka at ayaw sayo, hayaan mo. Malay mo sa mga susunod na araw ayaw mo na din sa kanya, naunahan ka lang."

8. "Hiwalayan na kung di ka na masaya. Walang gamot sa tanga kundi pagkukusa."

9. "Pag hindi ka mahal ng mahal mo wag ka magreklamo. Kasi may mga tao rin na di mo mahal pero mahal ka.. Kaya quits lang."

10. "Kung dalawa ang mahal mo, piliin mo yung pangalawa. Kasi hindi ka naman magmamahal ng iba kung mahal mo talaga yung una."

11. "Hindi porke't madalas mong ka-chat, kausap sa telepono, kasama sa mga lakad o ka-text ng wantusawa eh may gusto sayo at magkakatuluyan kayo. Meron lang talagang mga taong sadyang friendly, sweet, flirt, malandi, pa-fall o paasa."

12. "Huwag magmadali sa babae o lalaki. Tatlo, lima , sampung taon, mag-iiba ang pamantayan mo at maiisip mong hindi pala tamang pumili ng kapareha dahil lang maganda o gwapo. Totoong mas mahalaga ang kalooban ng tao higit sa anuman. Sa paglipas ng panahon, maging ang mga crush ng bayan nagmumukha ding pandesal, maniwala ka."

13. "Minsan kahit ikaw ang nakaschedule, kailangan mo pa rin maghintay, kasi hindi ikaw ang priority."

14. "Mahirap pumapel sa buhay ng tao. Lalo na kung hindi ikaw yung bida sa script na pinili nya."

15. "Alam mo ba kung gaano kalayo ang pagitan ng dalawang tao pag nagtalikuran na sila? Kailangan mong libutin ang buong mundo para lang makaharap ulit ang taong tinalikuran mo."

16. "Mas mabuting mabigo sa paggawa ng isang bagay kesa magtagumpay sa paggawa ng wala"

17. "Hindi lahat ng kaya mong intindihin ay katotohan, at hindi lahat ng hindi mo kayang intindihin ay kasinungalingan"

18. "Kung nagmahal ka ng taong di dapat at nasaktan ka, wag mong sisihin ang puso mo. Tumitibok lng yan para mag-supply ng dugo sa katawan mo. Ngayon, kung magaling ka sa anatomy at ang sisisihin mo naman ay ang hypothalamus mo na kumokontrol ng emotions mo, mali ka pa rin! Bakit? Utang na loob! Wag mong isisi sa body organs mo ang mga sama ng loob mo sa buhay! Tandaan mo: magiging masaya ka lang kung matututo kang tanggapin na hindi ang puso, utak, atay o bituka mo ang may kasalanan sa lahat ng nangyari sayo, kundi IKAW mismo!"

19. "Ang pag-ibig parang imburnal…nakakatakot mahulog…at kapag nahulog ka, it's either by accident or talagang tanga ka.."

SUMMARY OF FUNCTIONALISM

FUNCTIONALISM

Charles Darwin – Father of Evaluation

William James – mental life for the sake of action

Mental organization

mind adapts the environment

Production and Utilization

learning

perception

habit

knowledge

testing

end product

John Dewey

-reflex arc (response)

James Angell

-postulates the school of functionalism

Harvey Carr

Mental Activity

Production storage attending

Utilization

Responsive stage adoption

Adjust to the environment

Problem Solving

Perceptual motor response

Fixated

Harvard

James Lange Theory of Emotion

William Carl

Walter Cannon

Hanna Selyl – (GAS) General Adaptation Syndrome

Henry Murray – Personology

Gordon Allport – Trait

John Hopkin

Graham S. Hall

-American Psychological Society

-Psychology of adolescence and senescence

Adolf Meyer

-Mental Hygiene

Yale

George Ladd – Psychological Society of Columbia

Raymund Cattell – Factor Theory

-Capacity psychology

Robert Woodworth – Dynamic Psychology

Chicago

John Dewey

James Angell

Easy Access to Mental Disorders!

Diseases & Disorders: Links indexed with the Mesh term Mental Disorders (or more specific terms)

Alzheimer Disease
Amnesia
Anxiety Disorders
Asperger Syndrome
Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity
Autistic Disorder
Bipolar Disorder
Borderline Personality Disorder
Capgras Syndrome
Child Behavior Disorders
Combat Disorders
Communication Disorders
Creutzfeldt-Jakob Syndrome
Cyclothymic Disorder
Dementia
Dementia, Vascular
Dependent Personality Disorder
Depression, Postpartum
Depressive Disorder
Dissociative Disorders
Dyslexia
Dyspareunia
Dysthymic Disorder
Eating Disorders
Encopresis
Erectile Dysfunction
Firesetting Behavior
Huntington Disease
Hypochondriasis
Impulse Control Disorders
Kleine-Levin Syndrome
Lewy Body Disease
Mental Disorders
Mental Disorders Diagnosed in Childhood
Mental Retardation
Multiple Personality Disorder
Munchausen Syndrome
Mutism
Narcolepsy
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Paraphilias
Phobic Disorders
Psychotic Disorders
Restless Legs Syndrome
Rett Syndrome
Schizophrenia
Seasonal Affective Disorder
Sexual and Gender Disorders
Sexual Dysfunctions, Psychological
Sleep Disorders
Somatoform Disorders
Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic
Substance Withdrawal Syndrome
Substance-Related Disorders
Tic Disorders
Tourette Syndrome
Trichotillomania
Wernicke Encephalopathy

Ritalin - for ADHD :)

Ritalin
Generic Name: methylphenidate (METH il FEN i date)Brand Names: Concerta, Metadate CD, Metadate ER, Methylin, Methylin ER, Ritalin, Ritalin LA, Ritalin-SR

What is Ritalin?

Ritalin is a mild central nervous system stimulant. It affects chemicals in the brain and nerves that contribute to hyperactivity and impulse control.
Ritalin is used to treat attention deficit disorder (ADD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and narcolepsy (an uncontrollable desire to sleep). When given for attention deficit disorder, Ritalin should be an integral part of a total treatment program that includes psychological, educational, and social measures.
Ritalin may also be used for other purposes not listed in this medication guide.

What is the most important information I should know about Ritalin?

Do not use Ritalin if you have used an MAO inhibitor such as isocarboxazid (Marplan), tranylcypromine (Parnate), phenelzine (Nardil), rasagiline (Azilect), or selegiline (Eldepryl, Emsam) within the past 14 days. Serious, life-threatening side effects can occur if you use Ritalin before the MAO inhibitor has cleared from your body. Do not use Ritalin if you are allergic to methylphenidate or if you have glaucoma, tics (muscle twitches) or Tourette's syndrome, depression, or severe anxiety, tension, or agitation (Ritalin can make these symptoms worse). Ritalin may be habit-forming and should be used only by the person it was prescribed for. Ritalin should never be shared with another person, especially someone who has a history of drug abuse or addiction. Keep the medication in a secure place where others cannot get to it.

What should I discuss with my healthcare provider before taking Ritalin?

Do not take Ritalin if you have used an MAO inhibitor such as isocarboxazid (Marplan), tranylcypromine (Parnate), phenelzine (Nardil), rasagiline (Azilect), or selegiline (Eldepryl, Emsam) within the past 14 days. Serious, life-threatening side effects can occur if you use Ritalin before the MAO inhibitor has cleared from your body.
Do not use Ritalin if you are allergic to methylphenidate or if you have:

-glaucoma;
-a personal or family history of tics (muscle twitches) or Tourette's syndrome; or
-severe anxiety, tension, or agitation (Ritalin can make these symptoms worse).

Some stimulants have caused sudden death in children and adolescents with serious heart problems or congenital heart defects.
Before using Ritalin, tell your doctor if you are allergic to any drugs, or if you have:

-a congenital heart defect;
-high blood pressure;
heart failure, heart rhythm disorder, or recent heart attack;
a personal or family history of mental illness, psychotic disorder, bipolar illness, depression, or ---suicide attempt;
-epilepsy or other seizure disorder; or
-a history of drug or alcohol addiction.

If you have any of these conditions, you may not be able to use Ritalin, or you may need a dose adjustment or special tests during treatment.

FDA pregnancy category C. It is not known whether Ritalin is harmful to an unborn baby. Tell your doctor if you are pregnant or plan to become pregnant during treatment. It is not known whether Ritalin passes into breast milk or if it could harm a nursing baby. Do not use Ritalin without telling your doctor if you are breast-feeding a baby.

Long-term use of Ritalin can slow a child's growth. Tell your doctor if the child using Ritalin is not growing or gaining weight properly.

Do not give Ritalin to a child younger than 6 years old without the advice of a doctor.

Bukas ito para sa inyo!!

Happy Birthday Papa

wohoy... mga kaibigan.. nais ko lang batiin ang tatay ko ng Happy Birthday Peping Nabong!





isang napaka ulirang ama nyan promise!


haha



geh geh.. enjoy reading!! ^_^

kasabihang "kalokohang" makakatulong sa inyo!! trust me

wohoy! ano toh?

buti pa ang puso may saging!!


buti pa ang chocolate may "kisses"!!

buti pa sa telephone at nag-hehello!!

masakit ba ulo mo??? --- mas masakit nga lang pag tinatanggalan ka ng ulo!!

masakit ba puso mo?! baka pagod na magpadaloy ng dugo... hindi magmahal!

nakakatawa talaga ang mga tao... kung ano ang pa ang ninanais natin un pa ang nakakapagdulot ng sakit sa atin...

sabi nila, "wag kang mamangka sa dalawang ilog...." eh sa ngayon.... "mamangka ka sa dalawang ilog... dalawa naman ang iyong itlog.." - tropa ni albert

naiputan ka na ba ng ibon?! kakainis ba? magpasalamat ka na lang at di nalipad ang kalabaw! (life is so great, enjoy!)

masama daw maggupit ng kuko sa gabi? xempre baka masugatan ka!

masama din daw magwalis sa gabi, lalabas daw ang grasya sabi ng matatanda... ang totoo e baka mawalis mo ang nawawala nilang bagay!

di ko talaga magets lahat ng kakornyhan ko!


tsaka na lang ulit ung ibang kasabihan a!


*to be continued

MENTAL RETARDATION

There's a kid at school who seems different. You've heard people say he has mental retardation (say: ree-tar-day-shun), but what does that mean?


What Is Mental Retardation?


To understand mental retardation, it helps to know what intelligence (say: in-tel-uh-jents) is. Intelligence is a way of describing someone's ability to think, learn, and solve problems. Mental retardation means that someone has lower than average intelligence.

The person may have trouble learning and might need longer to learn social skills, such as how to be friends or how to communicate with others. People with mental retardation also might be less able to care for themselves or unable to live on their own as adults.

Sometimes kids who have mental retardation get teased or bullied. This is especially sad because these kids really need friends and people who will be kind to them. Just because they have learning problems doesn't mean they don't have feelings! Just like you, these kids want to be liked and to have fun at school.

During school, a kid with mental retardation will probably need help. Some kids have aides that stay with them during the school day. Special education and other services are available to help with learning and behavior.

They can also receive help in learning "life skills." Life skills are the skills people need to take care of themselves as they get older, such as how to ride a public bus to get to work. More and more, people with mental retardation are able to have jobs and to live independently.


What Causes Mental Retardation?


Mental retardation is not a disease itself. It occurs when something injures the brain or a problem prevents the brain from developing normally. Many times we don't know why a person has mental retardation. These problems can happen while the baby is growing inside his or her mom, during the baby's birth, or after the baby is born.


While a Baby Is Growing


If a pregnant mom gets certain infections or sicknesses, it can cause problems with the baby, such as mental retardation. Some medicines, which are OK to take when a woman is not pregnant, can cause serious problems if a woman takes them when she is going to have a baby. A woman also can put her baby at risk of mental retardation if she drinks alcohol or takes certain drugs during her pregnancy.

Problems with genes also can happen while the baby is growing inside the mom. Genes are in every cell and tell the cells what they are going to be and how the body is going to develop. Mental retardation is one problem that can be caused by genes. Children have a combination of genes from both their parents, so sometimes they receive genes that are abnormal or the genes change while the baby is developing.


During the Birth


If there is a problem during childbirth so that the baby's brain doesn't receive enough oxygen it can cause mental retardation.


After the Baby Is Born


Sometimes the baby is born without any problems, but he or she gets a serious infection as a young baby. This kind of infection can make a baby very sick and affect how the brain develops. A serious head injury also can cause mental retardation in a baby or an older kid.


How Do Doctors Know If Someone Has Mental Retardation?


Doctors figure out that a person has mental retardation by testing how well the person thinks and solves problems. If a baby or kid has mental retardation, doctors and other professionals can work with the family to decide what type of help is needed.


Can Mental Retardation Be Prevented?


Mental retardation can't always be prevented. However, a couple can have tests done to determine if they are at risk of having a child with certain medical conditions that may include mental retardation as part of the condition. When a woman is pregnant, it's important that she eats healthy foods and avoids alcohol and drugs. And after a baby is born, blood tests are done to check for certain problems. Some of these problems can cause mental retardation, but if they are treated right away, mental retardation can be prevented.

Also, it's important for kids to do what they can to prevent brain and head injuries. With babies, it's important that they are protected by car seats and that great care is used so that they don't fall from changing tables or other places. Older kids can protect themselves by wearing seat belts in the car and wearing helmets while riding bikes, in-line skating, or using scooters.


What's It Like to Have Mental Retardation?


Just like all kids, those with mental retardation want to develop their skills to the best of their abilities. They need to go to school, play, and feel support from loving families and good friends. What can you do? If you know someone who has mental retardation, be a friend!

Basic Understanding of SCHIZOPHRENIA

What is Schizophrenia?

* Schizophrenia is a mental disorder marked by severely impaired thinking and emotions that affects behaviors, as shown by abnormality in language, thought, perception and sense of self.
* Schizophrenic patients are typically unable to filter sensory stimuli and may have enhanced perceptions of sounds, colors, and other features of their environment.
* If untreated, patients gradually withdraw from interactions with other people, and lose their ability to take care of personal needs and grooming.
* Additional symptoms include psychotic experiences such as hallucinations, illusions, delusions and bizarreness in thinking.
* Duration of the sings and symptoms are at least 6 months.
* It is not "split personality", rather it is "shattered personality".


What causes it?

* There is no known single causes. One of the reasons for the ongoing difficulty in classifying schizophrenic disorders is incomplete understanding of their causes.
* It is thought that these disorders are the end result of a combination of genetic, neurobiological, and environmental causes.
* A leading neurobiological hypothesis looks at the connection between the disease and excessive levels of dopamine, a chemical that transmits signals in the brain (neurotransmitter).
* The genetic factor in schizophrenia has been underscored by recent findings that first-degree biological relatives of schizophrenics are ten times as likely to develop the disorder as are members of the general population.

How many suffer?

* The prevalence of schizophrenia is thought to be about 1% of the population around the world.
* Thus, it is more common than diabetes, Alzeimer's disease, or multiple sclerosis.
* About 90% of patients in treatment between 18-55 years old.
* Male and female equally affected, Symptoms appear earlier in males.
* More thant 1/2 of all male schizophrenic patients and 1/3 of all female patients are first admitted to psychiatric hospitals before 25.
* The disorder is considered to be one of the top ten causes of long-term disability worldwide.


What can be done?

* Psychotic symptoms and behaviors are considered psychiatric emergencies, and persons showing signs of psychosis can be brought family, friends, or the police to a hospital emergency room.
* A person diagnosed with psychosis can be legally hospitalized against his or her will, particularly if he or she is violent, threatening to commit suicide, or threatening to harm another person.
* A psychotic person may also be hospitalized if he or she has become malnourished or ill as a result of failure to fee, dress appropriately for the climate, or otherwise take care of him - or herself.
* A patient having a first psychotic episode should be given CT or MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan to rule out structural brain disese
* Antipsychotic medications have proven to reduce the symptoms such as apathy, withdrawal and lack of motivation or drive. Medications can also help to effectively reduce hallucinations and delusions.
* Some have mild side effects like dryness of the mouth, dorwsiness, dizziness and serious side effects as trouble with muscle control, restlessness, tremors and facial tics.
* Family therapy focused on communication skills and problem-solving strategies is particularly helpful. The family's attitude and behaviors toward the patient's life), and family therapy can often strengthen the family''s ability to cope with the stresses caused by the schizophrenic's illness.
* Psychotherapy - Most schizophrenics can benefit from psychotherapy once their acute symptoms have been brought under control by antipsychotic medication. Behavior therapy is often helpful in assisting patients to acquire skills for daily living and social interaction. It can be combined with occupational therapy to prepare the patient for eventual employment.

Gallbladder removal - laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

What is a gallbladder?

The gallbladder is a small pear-shaped pouch in the upper right part of your abdomen. It stores bile produced by the liver. Bile is a digestive fluid that helps to break down fatty food, and it is carried from the gallbladder to the intestine through a tube called the bile duct.

Why have a gallbladder removed?

Gallstones can develop if the bile gets too concentrated. These small, hard stones can block the bile duct, resulting in attacks of abdominal pain, nausea and fever. If these symptoms persist, removal of the gallbladder is often required. The body can function well without a gallbladder. For more information on gallstones, see the separate Bupa health factsheet, Gallstones.












Illustration showing the position of the gallbladder and surrounding structures
The position of the gallbladder and surrounding structures

A gallbladder operation is usually done using "keyhole" surgery - also known as laparoscopic cholecystectomy. This means your surgeon can remove the organ without having to make a large cut on your abdomen. However, some people may need open surgery. Your surgeon will explain which method is most suitable for you.

Keyhole surgery is usually carried out as a day case, but some patients may need to stay overnight in hospital.

The operation is done under general anaesthesia. This means that you will be asleep during the procedure. For more information on anaesthesia, please see the separate Bupa health factsheet, General anaesthesia.

What are the alternatives?

If symptoms are mild, or surgery is not possible for medical reasons, there may be alternatives to having surgery to remove gallstones.

* Medicines can sometimes be used to dissolve the gallstones, but this does not work for everyone and can take up to two years or longer.
* If the gallstones are blocking the bile ducts, it may be possible to view them using an endoscope (a narrow tube that is passed down the throat) rather than open surgery. This is known as an ERCP (endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography). Gallstones can sometimes be removed by enlarging the bile duct and removing the stones with special tools attached to the endoscope.
* Another type of non-surgical treatment breaks up the stones using ultrasound waves (lithotripsy). This is only suitable when a small number of stones is present and is an uncommon treatment option.

Your surgeon will explain the benefits and risks of having your gallbladder removed, and will also discuss the alternatives to the procedure.

Preparing for your operation

The hospital will send you a pre-admission questionnaire. Your answers help hospital staff to plan your care by taking into account your medical history and any previous experience of hospital treatment. You will be asked to fill in this questionnaire and return it to the hospital.

If you normally take medication (eg tablets for blood pressure), continue to take this as usual, unless your surgeon specifically tells you not to. If you are unsure about taking your medication, please contact the hospital.

Before you come into hospital, you will be asked to follow some instructions.

* Have a bath or shower at home on the day of your admission.
* Remove any make-up, nail varnish and jewellery.
* Follow the fasting instructions in your admission letter. Typically, you must not eat or drink for about six hours before general anaesthesia. However, some anaesthetists allow occasional sips of water until two hours beforehand.

Many hospitals operate a strict no smoking policy. If you are a smoker, you may wish to bring nicotine patches to use for the duration of your stay.

At the hospital, your nurse will explain how you will be cared for during your stay, and will do some simple tests such as checking your heart rate and blood pressure, and testing your urine.

You may be asked to wear compression stockings to help prevent blood clots forming in the veins of your legs (deep vein thrombosis, DVT). For more information on stockings and DVT, please see the separate Bupa health factsheets, Compression stockings and Deep vein thrombosis.

Your surgeon and anaesthetist will usually visit you before your operation. This is a good time to ask any unanswered questions.

Consent

If you are happy to proceed with the operation, you will be asked to sign a consent form. This confirms that you have given permission for the procedure to go ahead.

About the operation

Your surgeon will make two or three small cuts (about 5-10mm long) on the skin, above, or just below, your navel.

Using a hollow needle, passed through or near your navel, carbon dioxide gas is pumped into the abdomen. This creates more room for your surgeon to work in and makes it easier to see the internal organs.

The laparoscope (a long, thin telescope with a light and camera lens at the tip) is then passed through one of the cuts. Your surgeon will examine the internal organs by looking directly through the laparoscope, or at pictures it sends to a video screen.

Specially adapted surgical instruments are passed through the other cuts to help move the internal structures so that your surgeon can see around them and to cut and remove the gall bladder. X-ray pictures may be taken to look at the bile duct during the operation, so that your surgeon can find out if any gallstones are blocking the bile duct.

Afterwards, the instruments are removed and the gas is allowed to escape through the laparoscope. The skin cuts are closed with dissolvable stitches and covered with a dressing. The operation takes 60 to 90 minutes.

After your operation

You will be taken from the operating theatre to a recovery room, where you will come round from the anaesthesia under close supervision. After this, you will be taken back to your room, where your nurse will check the wounds and record your heart rate and blood pressure at regular intervals.

You will need to rest until the effects of the anaesthesia have passed. If you are sore, you may need painkillers. Please discuss any discomfort with your nurse.

When you feel ready, you can begin to drink and eat, starting with clear fluids.

Going home

You will usually be able to go home once you have made a full recovery from the anaesthesia. However, you will need to arrange for someone to drive you home and then stay with you for the first 24 hours.

Before you go home, your nurse will give you advice about caring for the healing wounds, hygiene and bathing. For more information, please see the separate Bupa health factsheet,

Caring for surgical wounds.

You will also be given a contact telephone number for the hospital, in case you need further advice, and a date for a follow-up appointment. This is usually four to six weeks later.
After you return home

If you need them, continue taking painkillers as advised by the hospital. General anaesthesia can temporarily affect your co-ordination and reasoning skills, so you should not drink alcohol, operate machinery or sign legal documents for 48 hours afterwards.

Normal activities, including returning to work, can usually be resumed after about a week. You must follow your surgeon's advice about driving. You shouldn't drive until you feel you could do an emergency stop without discomfort. If you are in any doubt about driving, please contact your motor insurer so that you are aware of their recommendations, and always follow your surgeon's advice.

Dissolvable stitches will disappear in about seven to 10 days. Any scarring should fade with time.

About two out of 10 people (20 percent) will have diarrhoea after having their gallbladder removed. Eating plenty of high fibre foods such as brown rice, wholemeal bread and pasta can help absorb excess water and make your bowel movement more bulky.

Deciding on having a gallbladder removed

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is commonly performed and generally safe. For most people the benefits, in terms of improved symptoms, are much greater than the disadvantages. However, all surgery carries an element of risk. In order to make an informed decision and give your consent, you need to be aware of the possible side-effects and the risk of complications.

Side-effects

These are the unwanted but mostly temporary effects of a successful treatment. An example of a side-effect is feeling sick as a result of the anaesthetic or painkillers.

You are likely to feel some pain in the abdomen as well as "referred pain" in the tips of your shoulders - caused by the gas used to inflate the abdomen. This usually disappears within 48 hours or so.

Complications

This is when problems occur during or after the operation. Most people are not affected but the main possible complications of any surgery are an unexpected reaction to the anaesthetic, excessive bleeding, infection or developing a blood clot in a vein in the leg (deep vein thrombosis, DVT). To help prevent this, most people are given compression stockings to wear during the operation. Complications may require further treatment such as returning to theatre to stop bleeding, or antibiotics to deal with an infection.

Other complications specific to keyhole gallbladder surgery are uncommon but can include accidental damage to other organs in the abdomen (such as the bile duct, bowel, bladder, liver or major blood vessels) requiring further surgery to repair the damage. In extremely rare cases, these complications can be fatal.

Your surgeon will be experienced at performing laparoscopies, but even so a few are not successfully completed and the abdomen may need to be opened. This is known as conversion to open cholecystectomy.

You may have ongoing abdominal symptoms, such as pain, bloating, wind and diarrhoea. These may require further investigation and treatment.

Ask your surgeon to explain how these risks apply to you. The exact risks will differ for every person. This is one of the reasons why we have not included statistics here.

Ang Pinagmumulan at ang Pagkalat ng Tsismis

Ang Pinagmumulan at ang Pagkalat ng Tsismis

Inihanda ni: Mellor, Mark Christopher D.

Ang tsismis ay bahagi ng kalakaran ng lipunan sa buong daigdig sa lahat ng antas ng kasaysayan. Bgamat ang nilalaman ng tsismis ay nagbabago, ang pagsagap ng tsismis o bali-balita bilang kaugalian ay nananatili sa paglakad ng panahon.

Bilang konsepto, ang tsismis ay problematiko. Ayon kina Paterson at Gist (1951), malaki ang pagkakaiba ng tsismis batay sa tipo at klasipikasyon. Iba ang tsismis na artipisyal at sistematikong ipinakakalat upag magsilbi sa interes ng iilan sa tsismis na natural na produkto ng imahinasyon at pantasya ay katumbalik ng tsismis na agtataglay ng katangian rasyonal. Dahil sa malawak na pagkakaibang ito, hindi katakataka na ang mga mananaliksik at dalubhasa ay hindi magkasundo sa iisang depinisyon ng tsismis.

Para sa nakakaraming sikolohista, ang tsismis ay produkto ng distorsyon ng transmisyong serial. Batay sa ganitong pananaw ang pangunahing katangian ng tsismis ay kamalian. Ang tsismis ay maaaring isang akala, opinion at balita na mali at hindi beripikado subalit kumakalat sa pamamagitan ng paglipat lipat ng bibig. Ang kamalian o distorsyon ay inaakalang pumapasok lamang sa tsismis sa paglilipat-lipat na ito. Inuugnay ang distorsyon sa limitasyon ng persepsiyon at gunita ng tao. Ang pananaw na ito ang siyang gabay sa pag-aaral nina Allport at Psotman (1947).

Pinagmumulan at batayan ng pagkalat ng tsismis.

Isang sosyo-sikolohista, si Kurt Bach, ang nagsabing ang tsismis ay nakatutulong sa pagpapaliwanag ng isang damdamin o sitwasyon. Ani Bach, ang tao ay nagkakalat ng tsismis dahil sa matinding pagnanais na ibahagi sa iba ang istorya at matamo ang paghanga ng iba bilang isang nakakaalam. Ang pananaw na ito ay sinuportahan ni Sprott (1952). Ayon sa kanya, ang taong nagkakalat ng tsismis ay gusting ipagmalaki na siya ay nakakaalam sapagkat ang pagkakaroon ng kaalaman sa isang sitwasyong di-tiyak ay nakagiginhawa.

Ang tsismis ay iniugnay ni Tiongson (1958) sa pagkabagabag. Aniya, ag taong ligalig at biktima ng pagkabagabag ang siyang madaling maniwala at magkalat ng tsismis.

Ayon naman kay Faris (1952), ang isang tao ay madaling makasagap ng tsismis sa isang kopnteksto ng paninibago, kawalan ng katiyakan at pangangailangan ng impormasyon. Kung ang di-katiyakan at pangangailangan ng impormasyon ay laganap, ang tsismis ay higit na mabilis kumalat.

Sa isang pag-aaral ni Aldana (1973), napagalaman na mayroon iba’t ibang pagganyak sa pagsagap ng bali-balita. Ang pagsagap ng bali-balita ay maaaring anyo ng mekanismong pananggalang isang paraan ng pangangatwiran pagpoprotekta sa sarili o dili kaya ay likas na paghahanap ng mga tao ng kasagutan sa mga pangyayari sa kapaligiran.

Ang tisimis ay kumakalat ayon kina Allport at Postman (1947) batay sa kahalagahan at di-katiyakan ng paksa ng tsismis sa buhay g kasapi sa grupo. Ang di-katiyakan ay maaaring likha ng kawalang-kakayahan ng komuikasyon at kawalan ng tunay na balita.

Mga pag-aaral tungkol sa pagkalat ng tsismis.

Ang itinuturing na pinakamalawak na pag-aaral sa tsismis ay iyong isinagawa nina Allport at Postman (1974). Ang pag-aaral na ito ay isinagawa sa pamamagitan ng eksperimento sa loob ng laboratoryo upang mabatid ang mga pangyayari sa isip ng tao na makapagpapaliwanag sa distorsyon at eksaherasyon na pumapasok sa tsismis.

Nilagom nina Allport at Postman ang resulta ng kanilang pag-aaral sa pamamagitan ng tatlong konsepto: laveling, na tumutukoy sa tendensiya na ang ipinapasang mensahe ay umikli at madaling maunawaan; sharpening, ang tendensiyang mamili kung alin ang matatandaan at ang retensyon ng limitadong bilang ng detalye; at assimilation, ang tendensiya ng impormasyon na maging magkakaugma batay sa palagay at interes ng ng mga taong bumubuo sa eksperimento.

Kung mahaba ang panahong lumipas matapos ang persepsyon ng sitwasyon, ang pagbabagong nagaganap sa ipinasang impormasyon ay higit na malaki. Gayundin, kung marami ang taong kasama sa pagpapasahan ng impormasyon, higit na maraming pagbabagong magaganap sa mensahe hanggang sa sumapit ito sa isang higit na madaling tandaan at maikling anyo.

Sa pag-aaral sa tsismis sa natural na kapaligiran, natagpuan nina Prasad (1935), Cpalow (1974) at Schacter at Burdick (1955) na ang nilalaman ng tsismis ay hindi lagging nauuwi sa distorsyon. Sa isang eksperimento tungkol sa pagkalat ng tsismis na isinagawa nina Schacter at Burdick, natagpuan nila sa 96 na porsiyento ng mga kasapi ang kawalan ng distorsyon. Ang kanilang pag-aaral ay isinagawa sa isang eksklusibong eskwelahang pambabae. Hiningi nila ang tulong ng ilang guro upang makagawa sila ng sitwasyong nababagay sa pagkalat ng tsismis.

Ang kawalan ng distorsyon ay pinatunayan din ng pag-aaral ni Prasad ukol sa pagkalat ng tsismis matapos ang isang malawakang lindol sa India. Inireport niya na ang ilang tsismis ay nakarating sa kanya mula sa iba’t ibang tao sa iisang anyo.

May mga ginamit na pagtataya ang mga mananaliksik ukol sa pagkalat at pinagmumulan ng tsismis sa natural na setting tulad na lamang ng palatanungan. Makakatulong ito sa pagkuha ng impormasyon tungkol sa nilalaman at layunin ng tsismis subalit hindi gaanong makapagbibigay-linaw sa paraan ng pagkalat ng tsismis.

Ten Commandments of Human Relations

1. Speak graciously to people. There is nothing as nice as a cheerful word of greeting.
2. Smile at people. It takes 65 muscles to frown, only 15 to smile.
3. Call people by first name. The sweetest music to anyone’s ears is the sound of his own name.
4. Be friendly and helpful. If you would have friends, be friendly and helpful.
5. Be cordial. Speak and act as if everything that you do is a genuine pleasure.
6. Be genuinely interested in people. You can like people if you try.
7. Be generous with praise, be cautious with criticism. You make friends with praise, enemies with criticism.
8. Be considerate of the feelings of others. It will be appreciated.
9. Be thoughtful of the opinion of the others. There are three sides to a controversy: yours, the other fellow’s, and the right one.
10. Be alert to give service. What counts most in life is what we do for others.

PROGERIA

Progeria: A rare genetic disorder that causes children to age prematurely. The classic type of childhood progeria is Hutchinson-Gilford syndrome, which is commonly referred to as progeria. It is characterized by dwarfism, baldness, pinched nose, small face and small jaw relative to the head size, delayed tooth formation, aged-looking skin, diminution of fat beneath the skin, stiff joints, and premature arteriosclerosis. Children with the progeria syndrome usually appear normal at birth. However, within a year, their growth rate slows and their appearance begins to change and age prematurely. They often suffer from symptoms typically seen in elderly people, especially severe cardiovascular disease. Death occurs on average at age 13, usually from heart attack or stroke.

Progeria is due to a single-letter "misspelling" in a gene on chromosome 1 that codes for lamin A, a protein that is a key component of the membrane surrounding the cell's nucleus. Most children with classic progeria harbor exactly the same misspelling in the lamin A (LMNA) gene, a substitution of just a single DNA base -- a change from cytosine (C) to thymine (T) -- among the gene's 25,000 base pairs. In a few progeria patients there may be a different single base substitution such as guanine (G) to adenine (A) just two bases upstream. In every instance, the parents are normal indicating that the misspelling is a new, or "de novo," mutation in the child. The minute change in the LMNA gene changes the way in which the sequence is spliced by the cell's protein-making machinery. The end result is the production of an abnormal lamin A protein that is missing a stretch of 50 amino acids near one of its ends.

Different mutations in other regions of the LMNA gene are responsible for a half-dozen other rare, genetic disorders. Those disorders are: Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy type 2, limb girdle muscular dystrophy type 1B, Charcot-Marie-Tooth disorder type 2B1, the Dunnigan type of familial partial lipodystrophy, mandibuloacral dysplasia and a familial form of dilated cardiomyopathy.

There currently are no diagnostic tests or treatments for progeria which remains relentlessly progressive and fatal. Although Hutchinson (1886) and Guilford (1904) did describe the disorder, it was recorded that on "March 19, 1754, died in Glamorganshire of mere old age and a gradual decay of nature at 17 years and 2 months, Hopkins Hopkins, the little Welshman.... He never weighed more than 17 pounds but for three years past no more than 12." The term "progeria" is derived from the Greek word for old age, "geras."

HYPERGLYCEMIA

What is Hyperglycemia?

Hyperglycemia, or high blood glucose (sugar), is a serious health problem for those with diabetes. Hyperglycemia develops when there is too much sugar in the blood. In people with diabetes, there are two specific types of hyperglycemia that occur:

* Fasting hyperglycemia is defined as a blood sugar greater than 90-130 mg/dL (milligrams per deciliter) after fasting for at least 8 hours.

* Postprandial or after-meal hyperglycemia is defined as a blood sugar usually greater than 180 mg/dL. In people without diabetes postprandial or post-meal sugars rarely go over 140 mg/dL but occasionally, after a large meal, a 1-2 hour post-meal glucose level can reach 180 mg/dL. Consistently elevated high post-meal glucose levels can be an indicator that a person is at high risk for developing type 2 diabetes

When a person with diabetes has hyperglycemia frequently or for long periods of time as indicated by a high HbA1c blood test, damage to nerves, blood vessels and other body organs can occur. Hyperglycemia can also lead to more serious conditions, including ketoacidosis -- mostly in people with type 1 diabetes -- and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome (HHNS) in people with type 2 diabetes or in people at risk for type 2 diabetes.

It's important to treat the symptoms of hyperglycemia promptly to prevent complications from diabetes.




What Causes Hyperglycemia in Diabetes?

Hyperglycemia in diabetes may be caused by:

* Skipping or forgetting your insulin or oral glucose-lowering medicine

* Eating too many grams of carbohydrates for the amount of insulin administered or just eating too many grams of carbohydrates in general

* Eating too much food and having too may calories

* Infection

* Illness

* Increased stress

* Decreased activity or exercising less than usual

* Strenuous physical activity

What Are the Symptoms of Hyperglycemia in Diabetes?

It is important to know the early signs of hyperglycemia. If hyperglycemia is left untreated, it may develop into an emergency condition called ketoacidosis (if you have type 1 diabetes) or HHNS (if you have type 2 diabetes).

Early signs of hyperglycemia in diabetes include:

* Increased thirst

* Headaches

* Difficulty concentrating

* Blurred vision

* Frequent urination

* Fatigue (weak, tired feeling)

* Weight loss

* Blood glucose more than 180 mg/dL

Prolonged hyperglycemia in diabetes may result in:

* Vaginal and skin infections

* Slow-healing cuts and sores

* Decreased vision

* Nerve damage causing painful cold or insensitive feet, loss of hair on the lower extremities, and/or erectile dysfunction

* Stomach and intestinal problems such as chronic constipation or diarrhea





How Is Hyperglycemia in Diabetes Treated?

If you have diabetes and have any of the early signs of hyperglycemia, be sure to test your blood glucose several times. You will need to have a record of several blood glucose readings before you call your health care provider. He or she may recommend the following changes:

* Drink more water. Water helps remove the excess glucose from your urine and helps you avoid dehydration.

* Exercise more. Exercise will help to lower your blood glucose. Caution: If you have type 1 diabetes and your blood glucose is over 240 mg/dL, you need to check your urine for ketones. When you have ketones, do NOT exercise. If you have type 2 diabetes and your blood glucose is over 300 mg/dL, even without ketones, do NOT exercise.

* Change your eating habits. You may need to meet with the dietitian to change the amount and types of foods you are eating.

* Change your medications. Your health care provider may change the amount, timing, or type of diabetes medications you take. Do not make adjustments in your diabetes medications without first talking with your health care provider.

If you have type 1 diabetes and your blood glucose is more than 250 mg/dL, your doctor may want you to test your urine or blood for ketones.

Call your doctor if your blood glucose is consistently greater than 180 mg/dL 1-2 hours after a meal or if you have two consecutive readings greater than 300 mg/dL.

How Can Hyperglycemia in Diabetes Be Prevented?

Make sure you are following your meal plan, exercise program and medicine schedule.

* Know your diet, count the total amounts of carbohydrate that you are consuming

* Test your blood glucose regularly.

* Know when to contact your health care provider if you have repeated abnormal blood glucose readings.

* Make sure you always wear medical identification that states you have diabetes so you can receive proper treatment in the event of an emergency.

HYPERKALEMIA

Hyperkalemia (AE) Hyperkalaemia (BE) is an elevated blood level of the electrolyte potassium. The prefix hyper- means high (contrast with hypo-, meaning low). The middle kal refers to kalium, which is neo-Latin for potassium. The end portion of the word, -emia, means "in the blood". Extreme degrees of hyperkalemia are considered a medical emergency due to the risk of potentially fatal arrhythmias.



Signs and symptoms

Symptoms are fairly nonspecific and generally include malaise, palpitations and muscle weakness; mild hyperventilation may indicate a compensatory response to metabolic acidosis, which is one of the possible causes of hyperkalemia. Often, however, the problem is detected during screening blood tests for a medical disorder, or it only comes to medical attention after complications have developed, such as cardiac arrhythmia or sudden death.

During the medical history taking, a physician will dwell on kidney disease and medication use (see below), as these are the main causes. The combination of abdominal pain, hypoglycemia and hyperpigmentation, often in the context of a history of other autoimmune disorders, may be signs of Addison's disease, itself a medical emergency.




Diagnosis

In order to gather enough information for diagnosis, the measurement of potassium needs to be repeated, as the elevation can be due to hemolysis in the first sample. The normal serum level of potassium is 3.5 to 5 mEq/L. Generally, blood tests for renal function (creatinine, blood urea nitrogen), glucose and occasionally creatine kinase and cortisol will be performed. Calculating the trans-tubular potassium gradient can sometimes help in distinguishing the cause of the hyperkalemia.

In many cases, renal ultrasound will be performed, since hyperkalemia is highly suggestive of renal failure.

Also, electrocardiography (EKG/ECG) may be performed to determine if there is a significant risk of cardiac arrhythmias (see ECG/EKG Findings, below).



Differential diagnosis

Causes include:

Ineffective elimination from the body

* Renal insufficiency
* Medication that interferes with urinary excretion:
o ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers
o Potassium-sparing diuretics (e.g. amiloride and spironolactone)
o NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, naproxen, or celecoxib
o The calcineurin inhibitor immunosuppressants ciclosporin and tacrolimus
o The antibiotic trimethoprim
o The antiparasitic drug pentamidine
* Mineralocorticoid deficiency or resistance, such as:
o Addison's disease
o Aldosterone deficiency, including reduced levels due to the blood thinner, heparin
o Some forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia
o Type IV renal tubular acidosis (resistance of renal tubules to aldosterone)
* Gordon's syndrome (“familial hypertension with hyperkalemia”), a rare genetic disorder caused by defective modulators of salt transporters, including the thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl cotransporter.



Excessive release from cells

* Rhabdomyolysis, burns or any cause of rapid tissue necrosis, including tumor lysis syndrome
* Massive blood transfusion or massive hemolysis
* Shifts/transport out of cells caused by acidosis, low insulin levels, beta-blocker therapy, digoxin overdose, or the paralyzing anesthetic succinylcholine

Excessive intake

* Intoxication with salt-substitute, potassium-containing dietary supplements, or potassium chloride (KCl) infusion. Note that for a person with normal kidney function and nothing interfering with normal elimination (see above), hyperkalemia by potassium intoxication would be seen only with large infusions of KCl or massive doses of oral KCl supplements.

Lethal injection

Hyperkalemia is intentionally brought about in an execution by lethal injection, with potassium chloride being the third and last of the three drugs administered to cause death.

Pseudohyperkalemia

Pseudohyperkalemia is a rise in the amount of potassium that occurs due to excessive leakage of potassium from cells, during or after blood is drawn. It is a laboratory artifact rather than a biological abnormality and can be misleading to caregivers.[1] Pseudohyperkalemia is typically caused by hemolysis during venipuncture (by either excessive vacuum of the blood draw or by a collection needle that is of too fine a gauge); excessive tournequet time or fist clenching during phlebotomy (which presumably leads to efflux of potassium from the muscle cells into the bloodstream);[2] or by a delay in the processing of the blood specimen. It can also occur in specimens from patients with abnormally high numbers of platelets (>1,000,000/mm³), leukocytes (> 100 000/mm³), or erythrocytes (hematocrit > 55%). People with "leakier" cell membranes have been found, whose blood must be separated immediately to avoid pseudohyperkalemia.[3]

Pathophysiology

Potassium is the most abundant intracellular cation. It is critically important for many physiologic processes, including maintenance of cellular membrane potential, homeostasis of cell volume, and transmission of action potentials in nerve cells. Its main dietary sources are vegetables (tomato and potato), fruits (orange and banana) and meat. Elimination is through the gastrointestinal tract and the kidney.

The renal elimination of potassium is passive (through the glomeruli), and resorption is active in the proximal tubule and the ascending limb of the loop of Henle. There is active excretion of potassium in the distal tubule and the collecting duct; both are controlled by aldosterone.

Hyperkalemia develops when there is excessive production (oral intake, tissue breakdown) or ineffective elimination of potassium. Ineffective elimination can be hormonal (in aldosterone deficiency) or due to causes in the renal parenchyma that impair excretion.

Increased extracellular potassium levels result in depolarization of the membrane potentials of cells. This depolarization opens some voltage-gated sodium channels, but not enough to generate an action potential. After a short while, the open sodium channels inactivate and become refractory, increasing the threshold to generate an action potential. This leads to the impairment of neuromuscular, cardiac, and gastrointestinal organ systems. Of most concern is the impairment of cardiac conduction which can result in ventricular fibrillation or asystole.

During extreme exercise, potassium is released from active muscle and the serum potassium rises to a point that would be dangerous at rest. For unclear reasons, it appears as if the high levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline have a protective effect on the cardiac electrophysiology.[4]

Patients with the rare hereditary condition of hyperkalemic periodic paralysis appear to have a heightened sensitivity of muscular symptoms that are associated with transient elevation of potassium levels. Episodes of muscle weakness and spasms can be precipitated by exercise or fasting in these subjects.

ECG findings

With mild to moderate hyperkalemia, there is reduction of the size of the P wave and development of peaked T waves. Severe hyperkalemia results in a widening of the QRS complex, and the EKG complex can evolve to a sinusoidal shape. There appears to be a direct effect of elevated potassium on some of the potassium channels that increases their activity and speeds membrane repolarization. Also, (as noted above), hyperkalemia causes an overall membrane depolarization that inactivates many sodium channels. The faster repolarization of the cardiac action potential causes the tenting of the T waves, and the inactivation of sodium channels causes a sluggish conduction of the electrical wave around the heart, which leads to smaller P waves and widening of the QRS complex.

Treatment

* When arrhythmias occur, or when potassium levels exceed 6.5 mmol/l, emergency lowering of potassium levels is mandated. Several agents are used to lower K levels. Choice depends on the degree and cause of the hyperkalemia, and other aspects of the patient's condition.
* Calcium supplementation (calcium gluconate 10% (10ml), preferably through a central venous catheter as the calcium may cause phlebitis) does not lower potassium but decreases myocardial excitability, protecting against life threatening arrhythmias.
* Insulin (e.g. intravenous injection of 10-15u of regular insulin {along with 50ml of 50% dextrose to prevent hypoglycemia}) will lead to a shift of potassium ions into cells, secondary to increased activity of the sodium-potassium ATPase.
* Bicarbonate therapy (e.g. 1 ampule (45mEq) infused over 5 minutes) is effective in cases of metabolic acidosis. The bicarbonate ion will stimulate an exchange of cellular H+ for Na+, thus leading to stimulation of the sodium-potassium ATPase.
* Salbutamol (albuterol, Ventolin) is a β2-selective catecholamine that is administered by nebulizer (e.g. 10-20 mg). This drug promotes movement of K into cells, lowering the blood levels.
* Polystyrene sulfonate (Calcium Resonium, Kayexalate) is a binding resin that binds K within the intestine and removes it from the body by defecation. Calcium Resonium (15g three times a day in water) can be given by mouth. Kayexelate (30g) can be given by mouth or as an enema. In both cases, the resin absorbs K within the intestine and carries it out of the body by defecation. This medication may cause diarrhea.
* Refractory or severe cases may need dialysis to remove the potassium from the circulation.
* Preventing recurrence of hyperkalemia typically involves reduction of dietary potassium, removal of an offending medication, and/or the addition of a diuretic (such as furosemide (Lasix) or hydrochlorothiazide).